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Akbari, H., Eto, J., Konopacki, S., Afzal, A., Heinemeier, K., and Rainer, L.

A New Approach to Estimate Commercial Sector End-Use Load Shapes and Energy Use Intensities. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 23-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 2, pp. 2.1-10. LBL-35372. We discuss the application of an end-use load shape estimation technique to develop annual energy use intensities (EUIs) and hourly end-use load shapes for commercial buildings in the PG&E service territory The results will update inputs for the commerciak sector energy and peak demand forecasting models used by PG&E and the CA Energy Commission. EUIs were estimated for: 11 commercial building types; up to 10 end uses; 3 fuel types; 2 buiilding vintages; and up to 5 climate regions.

Akbari, H., Fishman, B., and Frohnsdorff, G., Eds.

Proceedings of the Workshop on Cool Building Materials, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35514, 1994. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February 28, 1994. To pursue the Climate Change Action Plan's objectives, a workshop was held to explore the need for developing a national plan to assess the technical feasibility and commercial potential of high-albedo building materials. This report includes the minutes of the meeting and copies of presentation materials.

Bretz, S. and Akbari, H.

Durability of High-Albedo Roof Coatings and Implications for Cooling Energy Savings, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34974, 1994. Measurements of 26 high-albedo roofs indicates that most of the degradation of albedo is due to dirt accumulation and that most of this degradation occurs in the first year of application. This suggests that the development of dirt-resistant high-albedo coatings would boost cooling-energy savings.

Brown, R.

Estimates of the Achievable Potential for Electricity Efficiency Improvements in U.S. Residences. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 7, p. 7.55.

Comnes, G.A.

Review of Performance-Based Ratemaking Plans for U.S. Gas Distribution Companies, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35680, 1994. Performance-Based Ratemaking (PBR) is receiving increased attention by utilities and their regulators. PBR is the industry term for forms of regulation that increase financial incentives for performance relative to traditional cost-of-service/rate-of-return regulation. In this report, PBR plans filed by gas local distribution companies are described and reviewed.

Eto, J., Stoft, S., and Belden, T.

The Theory and Practice of Decoupling, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34555, 1994. This report examines how decoupling revenues from sales plays an important role for regulators seeking to transform utilities from sellers of a least-cost energy commodity to providers of least-cost energy services. The report considers threshold issues, operation and performance, and an overall review of the rate impacts of decoupling for California's electric utilities, which have had the longest experience with decoupling.

Eto, J., Vine, E., Shown, L., Sonnenblick, R., and Payne, C.

The Cost and Performance of Utility Commercial Lighting Programs, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34967, 1994. A Report from the Database on Energy Efficiency Programs (DEEP) Project. This first DEEP report investigates the results of 20 recent commercial lighting DSM programs. The report, unlike previous reports of its kind, compares DSM definitions and methodologies that each utility uses to compute costs and energy savings and then makes adjustments to standardize reported program results. All 20 programs were judged cost-effective.

Fishman, B., Taha, H., and Akbari, H.

Meso-Scale Cooling Effects of High Albedo Surfaces: Analysis of Meteorological Data from White Sands National Monument and White Sands Missile Range, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35056, 1994. Meteorological data from a network of surface weather stations were analyzed to determine meso-scale impacts of albedo on surfaces and air temperature. Analysis indicated that the high-albedo surface has a measurable impact on the air and soil temperature.

Goldman, C. and Kito, M.S.

Demand-Side Bidding: Six Years Later and the Results Are Coming In. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 10, p. 10.49.

Goldman, C. and Kito, M.S.

Review of Demand-Side Bidding Programs: Impacts, Costs, and Cost-Effectiveness, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35021, 1994. In DSM bidding programs, utilities and developers of DSM resources sign long-term contracts to provide a quantity of demand and energy savings at specified prices. Our analysis in this report suggests that variation in winning bid prices is influenced primarily by DSM bid ceiling prices, differences in the mix of measures and markets targeted by developers, and the degree of performance risk borne by the DSM developer. We also compared the costs of acquiring lighting savings in DSM bidding contracts with a sample of 20 utility-sponsored commercial/industrial lighting programs.

Golove, W.H.

Are Investments in Energy Efficiency Over or Under? An Analysis of the Literature. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 1, pp. 1:37-1.44.

Hanford, J.W., Koomey, J.G., Stewart, L.E., Lecar, M.E., Brown, R.E., Johnson, F.X., Hwang, R.J., and Price, L.K.

Baseline Data for the Residential Sector and Development of a Residential Forecasting Database, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-33717, 1994. This report describes the LBL residential forecasting database. It provides a description of the methodology used to develop the database and describes the data used for heating and cooling end-uses as well as for typical household appliances. It provides information on end-use unit energy consumption values of appliances and equipment, historical and current appliance and equipment market shares, appliance and equipment efficiency and sales trends, cost vs. efficiency data for appliances and equipment, product lifetime estimates, thermal shell characteristics of buildings, heating and cooling loads, shell measure cost data for new and retrofit buildings, baseline housing stocks, forecasts of housing starts, and forecasts of energy prices and other economic drivers.

He, J., Zhang, A., Xu, Q., Meyers, S., Sathaye, J., and Zhang, S.

Strategies for Energy Conservation in Road Freight Transportation in China, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBID-2066, 1994. This report analyzes key strategies for energy conservation in road transportation in China. One of the most significant measures is increased production of diesel trucks and buses. This option is technically feasible, and a comparison of the savings from fuel substitution with the capital cost of expanding the production of diesel vehicles shows that it is economically attractive for society and for users. We describe the magnitude of future diesel use in road transportation if substitution occurs on a large scale, and analyze the viability of increasing output of diesel fuel from China's oil refineries.

Heinemeier, K.

The Use of Energy Management and Control Systems to Monitor the Energy Performance of Commercial Buildings, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-36119, 1994. Ph.D. Thesis. Monitored data play a very important part in the implementation and evaluation of energy conservation technologies and programs. However, these data can be expensive to collect, so there is a need for lower-cost alternatives. In many situations, using the computerized Energy Management and Control Systems (EMCSs)-already installed in many buildings-to collect these commercial building performance data has advantages over more conventional methods. This method provides data without installing incremental hardware, and the large amounts of available operational data can be a very rich resource for understanding building performance. EMCSs are not typically considered in selecting tools for monitoring. They are considered untried, and have never been adequately evaluated as an alternative. EMCS monitoring does not fit into the conventional monitoring paradigm: the methods, limitations, resulting data, and analysis possibilities will all be different. Thus, assessing its appropriateness for an application will also require different methods, which have never been spelled out. This dissertation addresses several of these issues. One specific objective is to describe a monitoring-project planning process that includes definition of objectives, constraints, resources and approaches for the monitoring. The choice of tools is an important part of this process. The dissertation goes on to demonstrate, through eight case studies, that EMCS monitoring is possible, and to identify and categorize the problems and issues that can be encountered. These issues lead to the creation, use, and testing of a set of methods for evaluation of EMCS monitoring, in the form of guidelines. Finally, EMCS monitoring is demonstrated and compared with conventional monitoring more methodically in a detailed case study. The guidelines were found to be a useful tool in assessing EMCSs for monitoring. Fundamental differences were found between EMCS and dedicated monitoring: with dedicated monitoring, for example, quality control is ultimately under the control of the monitoring professional, while that is not the case when a building's EMCS is used. In many cases, however, EMCS monitoring is an adequate substitute for dedicated monitoring.

Howarth, R. and Sanstad, A.

'Discount Rates' and Energy Efficiency. Contemporary Economic Policy 13 (3) 101-109. 1994. Paper presented at the Western Economics Association International Conference, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, July 3, 1994.

Howarth, R. and Winslow, M.

Energy Use and CO2 Emissions Reduction: Integrating Pricing and Regulatory Policies. Energy Policy 19 (8) 855-867. 1994.

Huntington, H., Schipper, L.J., and Sanstad, A.H., Guest Eds.

Markets for Energy Efficiency. Energy Policy 22 (10) 1994. Special issue.

Hwang, R.J., Johnson, F.X., Brown, R.E., Hanford, J.W., and Koomey, J.G.

Residential Appliance Data, Assumptions and Methodology for End-Use Forecasting with EPRI-REEPS 2.1, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34046, 1994. This report details the data, assumptions, and methodology for the development of appliance models, including water heating, refrigerators, freezers, clothes washers and dryers, dishwashers, lighting, and cooking.

Janda, K.B.

Bounded Decision Making and Analytical Biases in Demand Side Management. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 1, p. 1.75. LBL-36523. Demand side management (DSM) programs across the United States commonly approach barriers to energy efficiency through technical/economic means and evaluate their impact through technical/economic analysis. To the extent that non-technical barriers exist and influence decision making, they complicate the expected capture of savings. Two utility DSM projects-Pacific Gas and Electric's Advanced Customer Technology Test for Maximum Energy Efficiency (ACT2) and Bonneville Power Administration's Energy Edge-serve as case studies to illustrate how non-technical barriers to specific energy-efficiency measures (EEMs) can limit technical conservation potential. An analysis of rejected EEMs suggests that lessons about non-technical barriers may be lost or obscured because of the predominant focus on technical/economic criteria over social, institutional, or cultural constraints. These findings support the need for different evaluation methodologies and further social science research devoted to understanding the non-technical barriers confronted by DSM project participants.

Johnson, F.X., Brown, R.E., Hanford, J.W., Sanstad, A.H., and Koomey, J.G.

Residential HVAC Data, Assumptions and Methodology for End-Use Forecasting with EPRI-REEPS 2.1, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34045, 1994. This report details the data, assumptions, and methodology for end-use forecasting of space conditioning energy use in the U.S. residential sector. The analysis uses the modeling framework provided by the HVAC module in EPRI's REEPS computer model.

Kahn, E. and Stoft, S.

Coal Gasification in a De-Integrated Electric Industry. Utilities Policy 4 (1) 46-54. 1994.

Kahn, E., Stoft, S., and Belden, T.

Impact of Power Purchases from Nonutilities on the Utility Cost of Capital, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34741, 1994. See also Kahn et al., Utilities Policy, 5(1) 3-11, 1995. Bond rating agencies have asserted that long-term power purchase contracts between utilities and nonutility generators are the equivalent of additional utility debt. This should raise the utility cost of capital. This study investigates whether there is any evidence for this effect in the equity markets. Several tests fail to detect any effect of this kind.

Koomey, J.G. and Sanstad, A.

Technical Evidence for Assessing the Performance of Markets Affecting Energy Efficiency. Energy Policy 22 (10) 826-832. 1994.

Koomey, J.G., et al.

Buildings Sector Demand-Side Efficiency Technology Summaries, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-33887, 1994. This report provides descriptions of 27 energy-efficiency technologies. For each, it provides a description of performance characteristics, consumer utility, development status, technology standards, costs, installation, maintenance, conservation programs, and environmental impacts.

Levine, M.D. and Sonnenblick, R.

On the Assessment of Utility Demand-Side Management Programs. Energy Policy 22 (10) 848-856. 1994. We compare the total resource cost and willingness to pay accounting methods of calculating demand-side management benefits and costs. After a review of Massachusetts Electric Company's process evaluation data, we conclude that the total resource cost method more accurately represents actual program results. However, even the total resource cost method may be incomplete, since it fails to account for savings associated with efficient equipment purchased independent of the utility program, but as a direct result of participants' positive, educational experiences in the program.

Levine, M.D., Hirst, E., Koomey, J., McMahon, J., and Sanstad, A.

Energy Efficiency, Market Failures, and Government Policy, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35376, 1994. ORNL/CON-383. This paper presents a framework for evaluating engineering-economic evidence on the diffusion of energy efficiency improvements. Four examples are evaluated. The analysis provides evidence of market failures related to energy efficiency. Specific market failures that may impede the adoption of cost-effective energy efficiency are discussed. Two programs that have had a major impact in overcoming these failures, utility DSM programs and appliance standards, are described.

Litt, B.R.

What Is A Low-Energy House and Who Cares?, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-36178, 1994. Most energy analysts view low-energy houses as good things, yet differ in their expectations of what exactly a low energy house is. There are two intertwining threads to this report. The first is an evaluation of 50 buildings that have been claimed to be low-energy residences, for which monitored energy performance data have been collected. These data represent the preliminary effort in the ongoing update of the Buildings Energy-Use Compilation and Analysis (BECA) data base for new residences. The second thread concerns the definition of a low-energy house. After the elements of a definition are presented, their implications for actors involved in providing housing are identified. Several more tractable definitions are applied to the houses in this compilation. The outcomes illustrate ways in which different interests are served by various definitions. Different definitions can yield very different energy rankings. No single definition of a low-energy house is universally applicable.

Litt, B.R. and Meier, A.

What Is A Low-Energy House? In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 9, p. 9.213. LBL-36521.

Liu, F. and Wang, S.

The Building Materials Industry in China: An Overview, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBL-37209, 1994. This report investigates the energy uses of the production processes of major building materials and identifies opportunities to improve energy efficiency. It provides estimates of potential energy savings attainable by introducing energy-conservation measures, and identifies barriers to energy conservation. Finally, it proposes policies that would both facilitate R&D and enable the industry to achieve a higher energy efficiency.

Liu, Z., Sinton, J., Yang, F., Levine, M.D., and Ting, M.

Industrial Sector Energy Conservation Programs in the Peoples' Republic of China during the Seventh Five-Year Plan (1986-1990), Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-36395, 1994.

Lutz, J.

Gas-Fired Residential Heat Pump Water Heaters: An Exploration and Evaluation of Potential Technologies. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 3, p. 3.141.

Martin, N., Worrell, E., Schipper, L.J., and Blok, K.

Workshop Proceedings: International Comparisons of Energy Efficiency, Berkeley, CA, June 6-9, 1994, Utrecht University: Utrecht, The Netherlands. 1994. The aim of the workshop has been to identify particular areas in the development of efficiency indicators, to promote better international cooperation and information sharing in the analysis of such indicators, and eventually to promote the incorporation of such indicators into the policy arena in the hope that a standard set of indicators provides a stronger impetus for action through the comparison of response strategies on a common basis.

McMahon, J. and Xi, X.

Uncertainty Analysis of Life-Cycle Cost: Residential Electric Heat Pump Water Heaters. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 8, p. 8.131.

Meyers, S., Salay, J., and Schipper, L.J.

Energy Use in a Transitional Economy: The Case of Poland. Energy Policy 22 (8) 699-713. 1994. See Meyers et al., 1993, LBL-33994, Energy Use in Poland, 1970-1991: Sectoral Analysis and International Comparison for the underlying report. This paper provides an analysis of how and why energy use has changed in Poland since the 1970s, with particular emphasis on changes since the country began its transition from a centrally planned to a market economy in 1989. The most important factors behind the large decline in Polish energy use in 1990 were a sharp fall in industrial output and a huge drop in residential coal use driven by higher prices. The structural shift away from heavy industry was slight. Key factors that worked to increase energy use were the rise in energy intensity in many heavy industries and the shift toward more energy-intensive modes of transport. The growth in private activities in 1991 was nearly sufficient to balance out continued decline in industrial energy use in that year.

Meyers, S., Schipper, L.J., and Salay, J.

Energy Use in Poland: An International Comparison. Energy-The International Journal 19 (6) 601-617. 1994. See Meyers et al., 1993, LBL-33994, Energy Use in Poland, 1970-1991: Sectoral Analysis and International Comparison for the underlying report. We compare energy use in Poland with that in Western countries in industry, transportation, and the residential and service sectors. We present data for 1988, the last full year of the centrally-planned economy, and for 1991, after reforms had begun to have an impact. We describe how differences between Poland and Western countries in sectoral energy use are shaped by variations in levels of energy-using activity, the structure of activity, and specific energy intensities. The comparison shows that Poland's comparatively high energy intensities in manufacturing and residential space heating explain why energy use per capita in Poland is not much below W. European levels despite Poland's much lower GDP per capita.

Mongia, N., Sathaye, J., and Mongia, P.

Energy Use and Carbon Implications in India. Focus on Industry. Energy Policy 22 (11) 894-906. 1994. We assess the economic impact of alternative abatement strategies which may be adopted by India in the perspective of its industrialization program. We quantify levels of CO2 emissions associated with different industrial strategies and process choices for given levels of projected demand. We then estimate optimal process and fuel mix of energy supply for each end use which is consistent with given emission abatement levels, and identify policy options in view of our findings.

Nelson, K.L. and Ritschard, R.L.

Sanstad, A.H. and Howarth, R.

Consumer Rationality and Energy Efficiency. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 1, pp. 1.175-1.184.

Sanstad, A.H. and Howarth, R.

'Normal' Markets, Market Imperfections, and Energy Efficiency. Energy Policy 22 (10) 811-818. 1994. Special issue, " Markets for Energy Efficiency", guest-edited by Huntington, H., Schipper, L.J. and Sanstad, A.H.. The conventional distinction between "economic" and "engineering" approaches to energy analysis obscures key methodological issues concerning the measurement of the costs and benefits of policies to promote the adoption of energy-efficient technologies. The engineering approach is in fact based upon firm economic foundations: the principle of life-cycle cost minimization that arises directly from the theory of rational investment. Thus, evidence that the so-called "market barriers" impede the adoption of cost-effective energy-efficient technologies implies the existence of market failures as defined in the context of microeconomic theory. Problems of imperfect information and bounded rationality on the part of consumers, for example, may lead real-world outcomes to deviate from the dictates of efficient resource allocation. A widely-held contrary view, that the engineering view lacks economic justification, is based on the fallacy that markets are "normally" efficient.

The Environmental Impacts of Global Climate Change in Developing Countries: Establishing Research Priorities, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBID-2014, 1994. The Developing Countries Network on the Environmental Impacts of Global Climate Change Phase I Report.

Sathaye, J. and Christensen, J.

Cost of Stabilizing GHG Emissions: Focus on Developing Countries. Energy Policy 22 (11) 891-983. 1994. Special issue, "Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Options", edited by Sathaye, J. and Christensen, J..

Sathaye, J., Friedmann, R., Meyers, S., deBuen, O., Gadgil, A., Vargas, E., and Saucedo, R.

Economic Analysis of Ilumex: A Project to Promote Energy-Efficient Residential Lighting in Mexico. Energy Policy 22 (2) 163-171. 1994. This paper describes an economic analysis of a project designed to promote high penetration rates of CFLs in two cities in Mexico. Our analysis indicates that the project will bring substantial net economic benefits to Mexico, the utility, and the average customer.

Sathaye, J., Tyler, S., and Goldman, N.

Transportation, Fuel Use, and Air Quality in Asian Cities. Energy-The International Journal 19 (5) 573-586. 1994. Special issue, "Energy Use in Asian Cities", edited by Sathaye, J., Tyler, S., and Goldman, N.. While in almost every country in the world, urbanization has been accompanied by more intensive use of motorized transportation, in the cities of developing Asia, these processes have occurred more rapidly and under different conditions. This article highlights some of the transportation trends in Asian cities and discusses some of the possible institutional solutions for improving these urban transport systems.

Schipper, L.J. and Martinot, E.

Energy Efficiency in Former Soviet Republics: Opportunities for the West. International Journal of Global Energy Issues 6 (3/4/5) 216-227. 1994. LBL-33929. We review what former Soviet republics need to improve energy efficiency in both the short and long term. We examine the different ways in which western public and private authorities might accelerate these improvements. We envisage an enormous role for western organizations to aid these countries, while we caution about pitfalls and discuss the merits of different approaches. In particular, we caution against a narrow, "enercentric" approach that focuses mainly on energy and the energy sector, arguing that forces of economic reform should be harnessed to provide the main thrust for improving efficiency.

Schipper, L.J., Martinot, E., Khrushch, M., Salay, J., Sheinbaum, C., and Vorsatz, D.

The Structure and Efficiency of Energy Use in a Reforming Economy: The Case of Estonia, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35542, 1994. See also Martinot et al., Energy Demand and Efficiency in Estonia: Structure, Potential, and Policies, Energy Policy, 23 (3) 217-233, 1995.

Schipper, L.J. and Price, L.

Efficient Energy Use and Well Being: The Swedish Example After 20 Years. Natural Resources Forum 18 (2) 125-142. 1994. This paper reviews the evolution of energy use in Sweden since the early 1970s to shed light on the future, with emphasis on the role of energy efficiency. Despite important savings, we found that Sweden was well behind other OECD countries and that she now faces many dilemmas that will influence future energy use.

Schipper, L.J. and Sheinbaum, C.

OECD Household Energy Use Efficiency after the Oil-Price Crash: End of an Era? In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 4, pp. 4.215-4.230.

Schipper, L.J. and Tax, W.

New Car Test and Actual Fuel Economy: Yet Another Gap? Transport Policy 1 (2) 1-9. 1994. Automobile fuel economy derived from tests varies greatly from that obtained from actual daily use. This "gap" appears to be growing because tests do not reflect real-world driving and because driving is increasingly becoming less fuel-efficient. Comparisons among US, Canada, and four European countries find that automobile fuel economy tests tend to understate fuel use by 15-25%. Since automobile fuel use is at the center of much environmental concern, the present analysis of new-car fuel economy suggests some mitigation techniques to close the test/actual fuel economy gap.

Schrock, D.W., Stoops, J.L., Meier, A.K., Vine, E.L., and Solomon, B.D.

Developing Energy and Environmental Reporting Protocols. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 23-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 4, pp. 4.231-239. LBL-35642. In this paper, we review the policy differences and associated reporting and verification protocols between three energy and/or environmental reporting programs in the United States, specifically the Conservation Verification Protocols (CVP) - a voluntary set of procedures for reporting acid rain reductions from energy conservation, the Greenhouse Gas Voluntary Reporting Program (GGVRP) to acknowledge greenhouse gas-reducing activities, and a national database on energy efficiency programs (DEEP) an informational database on utility demand-side management (DSM) programs. The most important lesson learned in developing these reporting programs is that the accuracy of the program for reporting energy savings activities is dependent upon both the estimation and verification protocols used in the program and the mapping procedures used to generate emission impacts from energy savings. Additionally, the types of protocols that may be used in the program depend upon who is participating in the program. The free market can also be a useful tool in determining how much money reporting entities want to spend on energy savings and emissions reductions estimation and verification protocols by placing a dollar value on atmospheric emissions. After such programs are implemented, the program managers should ensure that an iterative, quality control process is utilized. The reporters of such information must be made aware that their numbers will be reviewed carefully and will be questioned for accuracy. Finally, the accuracy and confidence of the reported information should be reviewed on a periodic basis to ensure that the goals and expectations of the program and the reporting entities are being met.

Sezgen, A.O. and Huang, Y.J.

Lighting/HVAC Interactions and Their Effects on Annual and Peak HVAC Requirements in Commercial Buildings. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 3, p. 3.229. LBL-36524. Lighting measures have been identified as one of the most effective strategies for reducing energy use in commercial buildings. Reductions in lighting energy have secondary effects on the cooling and heating energy consumption and peak HVAC requirements of a building. In general, lighting energy reductions increase the heating and decrease cooling requirements of a building. The net change in a building's annual and peak energy requirements, however, is difficult to quantify and depends on the building characteristics, operating conditions, and climate. This paper characterizes the impacts of lighting/HVAC interactions on the annual and peak heating/cooling requirements of prototypical U.S. commercial buildings through computer simulations using the DOE-2.1E building energy analysis program. Ten building types of two vintages and nine climates are chosen to represent the U.S. commercial building stock. For each combination of building type, vintage, and climate, a prototypical building is simulated with two lighting power densities, and the resultant changes in heating and cooling loads are recorded. Simple concepts of Lighting Coincidence Factors are used to describe the observed interactions between lighting and HVAC requirements. Coincidence Factor is defined as the ratio of the changes in HVAC loads to those in lighting loads, where load is either the annual or the peak load. The paper presents tables of lighting Coincidence Factors (CF) for major building types and climates. These parameters can be used for regional or national cost/benefit analyses of lighting-related policies and utility DSM programs. Using Annual Coincidence Factors and typical efficiencies for heating and cooling systems, net changes in space conditioning energy use from a lighting measure can be calculated. Similarly, Demand Coincidence Factors can be used to estimate the changes in HVAC sizing, which can then be converted to changes in capital outlay using standard-design curves; or they can be used to estimate coincident peak reductions for the analysis of the utility's avoided costs. The results from the use of these tables are meaningful only when they involve a significantly large number of buildings.

Sezgen, A.O., Franconi, E.M., Greenberg, S.E., Koomey, J.G., and Akbari, H.

Technology Data Characterizing Space Conditioning in Office Buildings: Application to End-Use Forecasting with COMMEND 4.0, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34123, 1994. This report characterizes the present commercial floorstock for offices in terms of space-conditioning technologies and develops cost-efficiency data for these technologies. The report also characterizes the annual and peak space-conditioning requirements for the building stock. The representation of space conditioning end uses is complicated; EPRI's Commercial End-Use Planning System (COMMEND 4.0) and the associated data development presented in this report attempt to tackle the complications and create a consistent forecasting framework.

Sezgen, A.O., Huang, Y.J., Atkinson, B., Eto, J.H., and Koomey, J.G.

Technology Data Characterizing Lighting in Commercial Buildings: Applications to End-Use Forecasting with COMMEND 4.0, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-34243, 1994. This report characterizes the present commercial floorstock in terms of lighting technologies and develops cost-efficiency data for them. It also characterizes lighting utilization patterns and lighting level requirements. The data is organizes in a form usable by a forecasting analyst.

Sheinbaum, C., Meyers, S., and Sathaye, J.

Transportation Energy Use in Mexico, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, LBL-35919, 1994. This report presents data on passenger travel and freight transport and analysis of the consequent energy use in Mexico during 1970-1991. We describe changes in modal shares and analyze trends in energy intensity of different modes. We look in more detail at patterns , energy use, and related environmental problems in Mexico City and also discuss policies that have been implemented there to reduce emissions from vehicles.

Sinton, J. and Levine, M.

Changing Energy Intensity in Chinese Industry: The Relative Importance of Structural Shift and Intensity Change. Energy Policy 22 (3) 239-255. 1994. We analyzed 3 sets of energy consumption and output value data using a Laspeyres index method to determine the relative roles of structural shift and real intensity change in China's industrial sector between 1980 and 1990. Contrary to prevailing views, we find that real intensity change accounted for most of the large apparent drop in industrial energy intensity in the 1980s.

Sonnenblick, R. and Eto, J.

Uncertainty in Site Inspection and Tracking Database Estimates of Savings. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 8, p. 8.205.

Vine, E., Eto, J., Shown, L., Sonnenblick, R., and Payne, C.

Evaluation of Commercial Lighting Programs: A DEEP Assessment. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 28-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 8, p. 8.235. LBL-36522. In this paper, we present key findings from a Database on Energy Efficiency Programs (DEEP) report on commercial lighting programs. In the DEEP report, which is the first in a series, we examine the measured performance of 20 utility-sponsored, demand-side management (DSM), lighting efficiency programs in the commercial and industrial (C/I) sectors. We assess the performance of the lighting programs based on four measures: the total resource costs of the programs, participation rates, energy savings per participant, and utility costs per participant. At an average cost of 3.9 ¢/kWh, these programs are judged to be cost-effective when compared to avoided costs in their areas. We critically examine participation rates, energy savings per participant, and utility costs per participant in order to understand precisely what aspects of program performance they measure. Finally, we summarize some of the primary difficulties in collecting DSM data in a consistent and comprehensive fashion, and offer some solutions to this challenging problem.

Vine, E., Misuriello, H., and Hopkins, M.E.

A Research Agenda for Demand-Side Management Impact Measurement. Energy-The International Journal 19 (11) 1103-1111. 1994. This paper focuses on future areas of research and development (R&D) in the area of demand-side management (DSM) impact measurement and evaluation. The goal is to identify viable R&D opportunities that can improve capabilities to determine the energy and demand reductions achieved in customer facilities through DSM. After reviewing key issues in data analysis, field monitoring, and the evaluation of DSM measures, potential R&D opportunities are identified according to a priority level.

Wiel, S.

The Impact of Power Sector Restructuring on Building Energy Efficiency: The Roles of IRP and DSM. In Proceedings of the ACEEE 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, August 23-September 3, 1994, Washington, DC, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1994. Vol. 6, pp. 6.251-261. The power sector structure around the world is undergoing a major overhaul. Increasing reliance is being placed on market forces in lieu of the traditional regulation of the electricity industry. Proponents of the market-force approach argue that IRP and DSM are incompatible with the new order. A review of a full range of restructuring possibilities reveals no incompatibility. In all cases, DSM enhances end-use efficiency. In all cases, cost-effective end-use efficiency is maximized by using a ratemaking process for franchise retail service which accommodates DSM and makes it profitable. In all cases, if a capacity planning function remains anywhere in the sector, it is best done with IRP.

Wiel, S. and Goldman, C.A.

End-Use Fuel Substitution: Review of Regulatory Approaches and Key Policy Issues. The Electricity Journal 7 (2) 48-59. 1994. Both customers and utilities can profit from properly conceived fuel substitution policies. This examination of existing practice may help state regulators grapple with a thorny issue.

Wu, Z., He, J., Zhang, A., Xu, Q., Zhang, S., and Sathaye, J.

A Macro-Assessment of Technology Options for CO2 Mitigation in China's Energy System. Energy Policy 22 (11) 907-913. 1994. China's CO2 emissions from commercial fossil fuel reached 638 Mt C in 1990, accounting for 11% of the world's total emissions of that year. This paper analyzes the characteristics of China's CO2 emissions and proposes several options for mitigating them on a large scale, such as strengthening energy conservation, introducing energy-efficient technologies into the energy system, speeding up non-fossil fuel development, etc. Through the application of the ETO model, the paper evaluates the cost of mitigating CO2 emissions and its effects on national economic development.

Yang, F., Duan, N., Huan, Z., Levine, M.D., Martin, N., Sinton, J., Wang, Q., Zhou, D., and Zhu, C.

A Review of China's Energy Policy, Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBL-35336, 1994. This report is intended to provide a basic understanding of the development of China's energy policymaking over the past four decades. It also provides a summary of energy forecasts used by Chinese policymakers, highlighting current policy goals and issues that will shape future policy.

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